In fact, in an environment where no words can be used, such as in ancient times before the invention of words, and even in places where there is still a "wordless society" today, most poems are sung orally. This kind of poetry, we call it oral poetry; This theory of poetry is also called oral poetics.
Oral poetics has made great progress in the west. As a research perspective, it is also a methodology system, which has been inextricably linked with oral traditional research from the day it came into being. In other words, oral poetry is closely related to other folk oral genres or oral performance styles. In fact, in areas where oral communication still occupies the basic channel of information transmission, in many "local knowledge" systems, the concept and classification of poetry are very different from the familiar classification systems. For example, the function of poetic rhythm is sometimes more due to the characteristics of easy learning and memorization of rhyming style, rather than always due to the aesthetic feeling of rhyming. Examples of this kind are too numerous to mention.
It is worth noting that the questioning of the laws of classical poetics began with the emphasis on the unique attributes of oral poetry, and started from the "classic research" for the first time. In the first half of the 20th century, western academic circles made a new attempt to answer the long-standing Homer question, which triggered thinking about the rules of oral poetry. Literary researchers, anthropologists and folklorists in Europe and America all participated in the camp of oral tradition research, and gradually formed a set of theoretical systems. In China, there have been some introductions, such as oral formulaic theory (also known as Parry-Lord theory), national poetics, and the study of "colloquialism".
"Oral program theory" focuses on the expression of "formula" in words, and then finds that the expression of formula is the core feature of oral poetry. The form of programs has different definitions in different poetic traditions. But there is a basic feature, that is, it must be a phrase used repeatedly. The function of these phrases is not to repeat, but to construct lines of poetry. In other words, it is a ready-made expression with fixed meaning (often with a specific prosodic format) formed in tradition. These expressions are handed down from generation to generation, and a qualified singer needs to learn and store a lot of these phrases. In practice, the frequency of programs often becomes an index to judge whether poetry has oral origin. This method is largely used in the judgment of early European poetry manuscripts (such as Homer's epic and French Song of Roland). The meaning of the program is also much more complicated than we thought. Behind the literal meaning, there is "traditional reference". When Homer describes what an elegant woman does with "fat hands", we often think that Homer uses this phrase "inappropriately". In fact, in the ancient Greek epic tradition, "fat hand" means "bravery". This traditional reference is not easy to understand by reading the text, especially the definition of the dictionary. In other words, the interpretation of oral poetry depends more on the cultural soil rooted in poetry tradition. Not just based on the analysis of the text itself. This situation can be observed in the poetic traditions of many ethnic groups in China. As far as Mongolian epics are concerned, we will find that there are many expressions that make "readers" feel abrupt. These expressions are not a problem at all for experienced "listeners". In other words, the audiences of epic poems and the recipients of information in tradition certainly know how to understand the traditional references behind these phrases.
Of course, the characteristics of oral poetry will not only be reflected in the level of words. With the deepening of research, people find that the poetic characteristics of oral poetry are also reflected in such places: First, "voiceprint" has a strong guiding role. The rhyme of the first sentence is the main feature of Mongolian poetry, and the singer will be guided by the rhyme of the first sentence in the performance. Many slips of the tongue in his performance are related to this guiding role. When folk singers improvise, this feature is more fully reflected; The second is the extensive use of parallelism. In China tradition, techniques such as parallelism and antithesis are particularly popular among folk singers, which is of course a parallelism style; The third is the high thrifty sentence pattern. Some scholars have found that Homer is one of the great oral poets in human history, and the number of new sentence patterns he skillfully uses is actually limited. On the other hand, as long as he has a ready-made expression method, he will never try to find the so-called "novel" expression mode; The fourth is the "redundancy" of expression. In other words, we should not avoid duplication and redundancy. For written reading, this is difficult to accept; But for listening, this is not an unbearable torture. On the contrary, it is an advantage: only through the appearance of this repetition can the words arranged in sequence in the timeline establish a close connection between units in the audience's mind.
Furthermore, there is a great difference between oral thinking and written thinking. Illiteracy and non-illiteracy have great differences in understanding and classification of things. The concept world of illiteracy is more related to their own experience and practice than to reasoning. Generally speaking, the characteristics of illiterate thinking and expression can be summarized as: addition rather than progression, aggregation rather than analysis, redundancy or "repetition", conservatism and traditionalism, closeness to the humanistic life world, antagonism, putting yourself in the position and participation, dynamic balance, situation rather than abstraction, etc. (For a wonderful discussion on this issue, see Walter Ong's monograph "Authenticity and Literariness: Technicalization of Words". New york: Metthuen, 1982. For excerpts, see "Characteristics of Thinking and Expression Based on Oral Transmission", in the 2000 Supplement of Ethnic Literature Research). With the in-depth analysis of this oral thinking and expression characteristics, it will be easier to understand some attributes of oral poetry.
Oral poetics still exists in many places, and it finds problems that have not attracted people's attention but are really meaningful. For example, there are obvious differences in the setting of expression units. Taking western poetry as an example, the phenomenon of "enjambement" often appears in the works of literati, while in oral poetry, the singer takes "lines of poetry" as the unit of expression, or according to the poets of Mongolian history, a line of poetry overlaps with "one word" more often. This line of poetry is not a neatly arranged printed string in the concept world of literati, but a unit closely combined with rhythm, music and pace in performance.
This involves the problem of performance. Many times, the verse text in the performance will form a relatively strict rhythm according to the requirements of meter. Those lines, at least "sound" quite regular. However, the literal text looks very uneven. At the performance scene, singers often lengthen vowel tones to find the rhythm. Or, in other words, those poems that "look" sloppy are not necessarily sloppy in sound. There is a certain buffer elasticity between the number of words and the beat.
From the aspect of creation, the "creation" of large-scale oral poems is usually done on the spot of performance. The text of each performance is a new text directly related to the same narrative of the previous performance. Therefore, it is not only a narrative song in the traditional sense, but also a "song" full of new factors. The text of each performance forms intertextuality with other performance texts or potential texts.
The process of creation, dissemination and acceptance of oral poets is the same, which brings some other new features to oral poetry. For example, the writing process of oral poetry is influenced by the direct intervention of the audience and the audience's on-the-spot reaction. The audience's mood and reaction to the performance will affect the singer's performance, thus affecting the length of the narrative, the complexity of details, the exaggeration of words and even the structure of the story. The composition of the audience will also affect the identity of the hero of the story. For example, when telling stories to audiences of different ethnic groups, performers of Serbian-Croatian narrative poems will adjust the protagonist and structure of the story to cater to different ethnic groups.
Recent research shows that there is not always an insurmountable gap between oral poetry and written (literati) poetry. In many societies, different types of singers can be observed. They are exposed to tradition and influenced by contemporary education and written culture, so that some rules of written literature are used in narration, and their works also have some characteristics of written literature. In a word, oral poetry and literati poetry are not so much polar opposites, but rather genealogical relations from one end to the other, with a large number of transitional types in the middle.
With the deepening of oral poetics research, a new academic development trend has emerged in recent years. The traditional yardstick of judging literary value, which has long been regarded as canon, has been questioned-is the aesthetic law of poetry summarized from written literature used to explain oral literature? Who on earth, with what authority and for what reason, determines what kind of poetry can enter the works in the treasure house of human literature? Why can't you see those equally great oral art works in this list?
Snail girl
People in Ningbo folklore. The original "Postscript of Seeking God": When Emperor Jin 'an was in Jin 'an, the officials were grateful and lost their parents less.
No relatives, raised by neighbors. When I am seventeen or eighteen, I will be respectful and self-controlled and not illegal. I didn't have a wife when I just left home, but my neighbor thought about it, and the rule was to marry a woman, but I didn't get it. Lie down and get up early at night, and try not to give up day and night. Then I got a big snail at the gate, such as a three-liter pot. Think of foreign bodies, return to danger, and store urns. Ten days for livestock. Every morning when I go to the wild, I find that there is food and drink in the house, if anyone cooks it. Others said that neighbors benefited from it. A few days later, I thanked my neighbor. The neighbor said, "I didn't do anything right at first. Why should I thank you?" Finally, he said that neighbors didn't mean what he meant, but he forgot. Later, he asked more truly. The neighbor smiled and said, "Your wife has taken care of herself and cooked in her room. I am cooking for her." In the end, I silently doubt, I don't know why. After the crow, he went out and slipped back early. He peeked at the house outside the fence and saw a girl coming out of the urn and making a fire under the stove. At the entrance, you can see snails in the urn, but you can see women. But he went to the kitchen and asked, "Where does the bride come from to cook for each other?" Confused, she wanted to put it back in the urn, but she couldn't go. She replied, "I am in Hanzhong and Baishui Sunv. The Emperor of Heaven mourned your loneliness, was respectful and cautious, so he gave me the job of cooking for the temple. In ten years, I made Qing rich and got married. I should go there. And Qing secretly peeked at me for no reason. I have seen my shape, so I shouldn't stay, so I should go to the Committee. Although, from now on when not so bad. Diligent farming, fishing to cure diseases. Leave this shell to store rice grains, and you can't lack it. " Please stay, but you won't. When it was raining and windy, he suddenly died. Finally, it was the establishment of the throne and the seasonal sacrifice. If you live long, you won't be rich. So the villagers married their wives. After the official as a long cloud. Motome Temple is also here.
[Edit this paragraph] Legend 1
Once upon a time, there was a lonely young farmer who made a living by farming for the landlord. He works at sunrise and returns at sunset every day, working hard. One day, he found a very big snail in the field. He was surprised and happy. He took it home, put it in a water tank and raised it carefully with water.
One day, the farmer went to work in the field as usual in the morning, but when he came home the next day, he found delicious rice on the stove, delicious fish and vegetables in the cupboard and boiling hot water in the teapot. Two days, three days ... every day, the farmer decided to make things clear. The next day, the rooster crowed everywhere. As usual, he went down to work with a hoe on his back. He hurried home at dawn to see who was kind. He saw the chimney on the roof of his house smoking in the distance, so he went forward to see who was cooking with his own eyes. But when he crept close to the door and looked in, there was no movement at home. When he walked in, he saw that the food on the table was delicious, the fire in the kitchen was still burning and the water in the pot was boiling. The enthusiastic chef disappeared before he could scoop it up.
One day has passed. The farmer got up early again, the rooster crowed and went home before dawn. Before the kitchen smoke rose, Xie Duan quietly approached the fence, hid in the dark, and watched everything in his room with rapt attention. After a while, he finally saw a beautiful young girl slowly coming out of the water tank, and her clothes were not slightly wet because of the water. The girl moved to the stove and began to cook and cook.
Seeing the truth, the young man ran into the door and walked to the water tank. When he saw it, the snail he picked up was just an empty shell. He looked at the empty shell again and again in surprise, then went to the fire and said to the young girl who was cooking, "Girl, where are you from?" Why did you help me cook? "The girl didn't expect him to appear at this time. After listening to his questioning about his life, she was surprised and didn't know what to do. The girl wanted to go back to the water tank, but she was blocked. The young farmer kept asking, but the young girl had no choice but to tell him the truth. She is a snail girl.
Young people like snail girl very much, and later they got married.
Leech essence likes snail girl very much. Seeing that the snail girl and the farmer were so good, she was jealous and decided to take the snail girl away. So she pretended to be a fortune teller and cheated the snail shell from her blind mother-in-law. With the snail shell, the snail girl was collected by leeches and could not get out of his hole. Farmers and their partners went to the hole of leech essence to save snail girl, but they were defeated by leech essence. Later, they thought of a way to sprinkle salt on leech essence. Leech essence is most afraid of salt and finally dies in pain.
Snail girl and farmer live a happy life. A year later, she gave birth to a fat boy. In a blink of an eye, at the age of 5 or 6, she was playing with water by the river, and was later called the snail's child by her companion's children. "Fold, fold, fold, which female snail shell, ding, ding, which female snail essence." His son listened to others and hid his mother's shell, and the snail girl would never turn back into a snail.
[Edit this paragraph] Legend 2
During the Jin Dynasty, there was an orphan named Xie Duan in Houguan County. His parents died when he was very young, and his kind neighbors adopted him. Xie Duan is honest, hardworking and thrifty. When he was seventeen or eighteen, he didn't want to give his neighbors any more trouble, so he built a small house on the hillside and lived independently. Because his family is poor, he has never married a wife. Neighbors are very concerned about him, and they have helped him hook up several times, but they have not succeeded.
Xie Duan was not disappointed by this. He still works at sunrise every day, returns at sunset and works hard. One day, he found a very big snail in the field. He was surprised and happy. He took it home, put it in a water tank and raised it carefully with water.
One day, Xie Duan went to work in the field as usual in the morning, but when he got home, he found delicious rice on the stove, delicious fish and vegetables in the cupboard and boiling hot water in the teapot. He thought that some kind neighbor must have helped him cook.
Unexpectedly, I came back the next day like this. Two days, three days ... Xie Duan feels guilty every day and goes to the neighbor's house to thank him. He went to many homes, but the neighbors said they didn't do it. Why thank him? Xie Duan thought that this must be the kindness of his neighbor. He just thanked him again and again. The neighbors smiled and said, "You must have married yourself and hid at home to cook for you." Xie Duan listened and wondered. He can't think of a clue, so he wants to find out.
The next day, the rooster crowed everywhere. As usual, Xie Duan went down to work with a hoe. It was dawn, and he hurried home to see who the good-hearted man was. He saw the chimney on the roof of his house smoking in the distance, so he went forward to see who was cooking with his own eyes. But when he crept close to the door and looked in, there was no movement at home. When he walked in, he saw that the food on the table was delicious, the fire in the kitchen was still burning and the water in the pot was boiling. The enthusiastic chef disappeared before he could scoop it up.
One day has passed. Xie Duan got up early again. The rooster crowed in the field and went home before dawn. Before the kitchen smoke rose, Xie Duan quietly approached the fence, hid in the dark, and watched everything in his room with rapt attention. After a while, he finally saw a beautiful young girl slowly coming out of the water tank, and her clothes were not slightly wet because of the water. The girl moved to the stove and began to cook and cook.
Xie Duan really saw it, ran into the door and walked to the water tank. When he saw it, the snail he picked up was just an empty shell. He looked at the empty shell again and again in surprise, then went to the fire and said to the young girl who was cooking, "Girl, where are you from?" Why did you help me cook? "The girl didn't expect Xie Duan will appear at this time. She was surprised to hear him ask about her life, and didn't know what to do. The girl wanted to go back to the water tank, but she was blocked by Xie Duan. Xie Duan repeatedly asked, and the girl had to tell him the truth. It turns out that this girl is Motome, the water in the sky. Knowing that Xie Duan's parents died when he was a child, the Emperor of Heaven sympathized with him and sent a goddess to help him. Water Motome added: "God sent me to earth to cook and do housework for you. I want you to get rich, get married and get a good wife in ten years, and then I will reply in heaven. But now my mission has not been completed, but you know the secret. My cover was blown. Even if you promise not to tell, it is inevitable that others will know. I can't stay here any longer. I must go back to heaven. " After listening to the fairy's words, Xie Duan was very grateful and regretted it. He repeatedly invited Motome to stay. Water has made up its mind. Before he left, Shui said to Xie Duan, "Your life will be even sadder after I leave, but as long as you do farm work well, fish more and chop more firewood, your life will get better every day. I'll leave you the snail shell, and you can use it to store grain, so that the rice can live, and the rice in the shell can't be used up. "While speaking, I saw a strong wind outside, and then it rained heavily. In the rain, Motome said the last sentence and floated away.
Grateful for the kindness of the goddess, I specially made an idol for her and went to burn incense and thank humbly on holidays. And with the help of hard-working hands and the goddess, his days are booming day by day. A few years later, he married and became a county magistrate.
To thank Motome for its water, Xie Duan built a temple, which is today's Motome Temple.
[Edit this paragraph] Legend 3
One sunny morning, there was a breeze in Yuan Ye. Happy children are playing in the stream. They put the salvaged snails in the grass and chased a group of fish. Without water, the little snail is thirsty. It tried to swim to the shore because it was too far. At noon, the sun moxibustion roasted the earth, and a heat wave made it faint ... A pair of big hands lifted it up and opened his weak eyes in the wide palm. He stared at it affectionately, slowly put it into the water, and then left.
This is a passer-by who hoes home.
The little snail who got life was grateful, but it was just a snail. It doesn't know how to express, but it knows how to remember. Because of the affectionate gaze at that moment, from then on, it is no longer a simple snail, it has heard its own voice, and there is a deep desire.
So, the snail went through all kinds of hardships and came to the gods. It prays and hopes to exchange all the afterlife for the fate of its benefactors, even if they meet in the distant future. God agreed.
The years in the water are not peaceful, washed away by heavy rain, dried up and cracked. Small snails migrate again and again. It preserved a complete life, waiting for the sun and the moon, waiting for the truth.
Between water and water, there are no words.
Colorful flowers lit up Yuan Ye, and it was still a hot afternoon. He came to the shadow of the sun and brought a cool stream to his mouth. He finally saw the snail in the water. He took it back and put it in the water tank.
All the expectations, spring blossoms.
He was very surprised when he found that this beautiful and kind girl turned out to be a snail. She confided her love shyly, with tears of happiness in her eyes. It's not easy for a snail girl. It took ten thousand years to become a human form, and ten thousand years to become a secular desire. Finally, she can stand in front of the person she loves and shed her first tear.
This is a rose myth handed down from the village for thousands of years, and it is a flower of fantasy that leads the soul to fly over the dense secular world. In fact, everyone has their own initial waiting. Flowers bloom and fall, and our life will be beautiful because of waiting.
If, it is the spotless truth.
primitive culture
primitive culture
primitive culture
In the dictionary of early anthropologists, primitive culture refers to ethnic culture with no written language, relatively isolated, small population, simple social organization and technology, and slow progress in social and cultural changes. The history and myth of this culture are passed down from generation to generation through word of mouth, and this task is likely to be undertaken by a specially trained person or a group of people. In the 20th century, the word "primitive" was more and more used to connect human society, its organizations and products, and was regarded as the remnant of colonial spirit, which led to anthropology. It was once thought that the word "primitive", together with its barbarism, prehistory of characters and prehistory of towns, meant that compared with "advanced" culture, this primitive culture was in the early stage of cultural development. Contemporary anthropologists think this assumption is too simplistic and unwilling to adopt it. In addition, early writers often used such words to imply that these peoples were in a low state of intelligence and morality. Some scholars use the word "can't read and write" to avoid negating the meaning of evaluation. However, due to the inherent limitations of one culture in discussing another culture, it is still inconclusive whether all these words are appropriate. Whether an anthropological vocabulary is objective or not and what its scale should be are still controversial.