The Gospel of Luke tells the story of Lazarus and the rich man. A rich man and the poorest beggar died on the same day. Lazarus the beggar found himself in heaven, while the rich were suffering. He looked up and saw his father Abraham and Lazarus beside him. He asked Lazarus if he could bring him some water, but he was refused. There is a huge gap between people in heaven and people in hell, and no one can cross it.
The rich man then asked Abraham if he could send Lazarus back to earth to warn his family, because he said that all his five brothers lived a self-indulgent lifestyle that he liked, and he didn't want them to suffer the same fate. When Abraham answered, "They have Moses and prophets; Let them listen to them, "the rich man replied. His brothers don't listen to the Bible, but if someone rises from the dead, they will listen to him. Abraham went on to say, "If they don't listen to Moses and the prophet, even if someone rises from the dead, they won't believe it" (Luke 16: 19-3 1).
For centuries, this story has been explained in many different ways to put forward various theological viewpoints, but its theme is eternal: what happens after death? The rich thought they had a good life, but found themselves in the worst afterlife, while Lazarus, who suffered on earth, was welcomed by God. It sounds reasonable for the rich to ask Lazarus to be sent back to earth, because if someone comes back from the dead and tells people what it is like, people will definitely listen and live a different life; However, Abraham refused this request.
Although Abraham's reaction disappointed the rich, his assessment of the situation was accurate. Today, people's stories about near-death experiences are accepted by those who already believe in the afterlife, but denied by those who don't believe in the afterlife. Even if they come back from the dead, they won't believe their stories if they can't accept this reality. Similarly, they will certainly not accept the ancient legends about similar events.
However, in ancient Egypt, the afterlife was certain for most of the history of civilization. When a person dies, a person's soul goes to another plane and leaves the body, hoping to be judged by the gods and live forever in heaven. Undoubtedly, this kind of afterlife existed except in the Middle Kingdom period (2040- 1782 BC). Even so, literature expressing cynicism about the afterlife can be interpreted as a literary means, as simple as a serious theological challenge. The souls of relatives did not disappear after death, and there was no unexpected danger in the afterlife like the rich people experienced by Luke.
One exception is a fictional work from Rome and Egypt (30 BC-646 AD) called Sethna II, which may be the basis of Luke's story. In part of Setna II, Si-Osire takes his father Setna to the underworld and shows him how a rich man and a poor man experience the afterlife. Contrary to Sethna's earlier understanding, the rich will be happier than the poor, the rich will suffer in the underworld, and the poor will be promoted. Si-Osire took his father to the afterlife to correct his misunderstanding. Their short trip there showed the close connection between the ancient Egyptians and the other world. The dead people are still alive, and you can even communicate with them if you want. These communications are called "letters to the dead" today.
The Egyptian afterlife and the dead
It is believed that after a person's death, and observing the proper funeral ceremony, a person will be tried before Osiris and his court. If a person lives well, then a person will be justified and ascend to heaven. What is a good life? The answer is to recite the negative confession before the Osiris court, and weigh it with the white feather of truth, but even before a person dies, people will have a good grasp of their chances in the temple. The truth.
Egyptians do not rely on ancient documents to guide their moral behavior, but rely on the principles of ma'at, harmony and balance, which encourage them to live in peace with the earth and neighbors. Of course, this principle is embodied in religious stories, in the goddess of the same name, and also quoted in medical literature and hymns, but it is a living concept that can measure a person's success in daily meetings. No one needs to be raised from the dead with a warning; A person's behavior in life and its consequences are enough-or should-to give a person a fairly good signal about what awaits them after death.
The justified dead, who are now in heaven and have God's ears, can be persuaded to answer questions on behalf of people, predict the future or protect people from unfair treatment. The gods created a harmonious world. If they want to reach heaven in the next heaven, they just need eternal life. If a person exercises his life that he wants to live forever based on the concept of harmony and balance (including consideration and kindness to his neighbors, of course) every day, then a person can have confidence to enter heaven after death.
Nevertheless, there are still supernatural forces at work in the universe, which may cause a problem on the road of life. Evil demons, angry gods and souls of unfortunate or vengeful dead may interfere with a person's health and happiness at any time and for any reason. Just because a person is loved by a God like Thoth in life and career doesn't mean that another person like Seth can't bring any sorrow. Besides, only natural difficulties bother the soul and make people lose their balance, such as illness, disappointment, heartbreak and the death of their loved ones. When these troubles or more mysterious things come to a person, you can do one thing directly: write a letter to the deceased.
History and purpose
Letters of the dead from the ancient kingdom (about 26 BC13-265438+08 BC1) to the late ancient Egypt (525-332 BC) are basically the whole history of Egypt. When building a tomb according to personal wealth and status, a feeding church was built so that the soul can get food and drink every day. Letters to the dead are usually written in sacrificial bowls and sent to these churches with food and drinks, and then read by the souls of the dead. Egyptian archaeologist David P. Silverman pointed out, "However, in most cases, the interaction between the living and the dead will be more casual, and oral prayers will leave no trace" (142). It is for this reason that there are few letters written to the deceased today, but even so, it is enough to understand their intention and importance.
The way a person writes letters is the same as the way he writes letters to a living person. Silverman explained:
Whether carved on a clay bowl, linen or papyrus, these documents are in the form of standard letters with the symbols of the recipient and the sender on them. According to the tone of the letters, they are called: "A letter from Merirtyfy to Autef: How are you? Does the west take care of you as you wish? ( 142)
Of course, "west" refers to the land of death, and people think it is that direction. As the king of the dead, Osiris is called "the first man in the West". As silverman and others have pointed out, these letters are expected to receive a response, because the spells 148 and 190 in the Egyptian Book of the Dead enable the soul to let the living know its performance in the afterlife.
Once greetings are expressed, the sender will deal with the problem of information, which is always a request for some kind of intercession. Usually, the author will remind the recipients of some goodwill they have expressed to them or their happy life on earth. Egyptian archaeologist Guy Robbins quoted one of the words:
A man pointed out in a letter to his dead wife that he "married her when he was young". I'm with you when I do all kinds of business. I am on your side. I didn't divorce you. I didn't upset you. When I was young, when I performed various important duties for Pharaoh, I did this, living, prospering, healthy and not divorced, saying, "She has always been with me-I say so!" In other words, when men climb the bureaucratic ladder, they may not be strangers. They divorced their young wife and married a woman who was more suitable or beneficial to their higher position. (63-64)
The husband reminded his wife how loyal and devoted he was to her before asking her to help him solve his problem. Rosalie David, an Egyptian archaeologist, pointed out, "There are various requests in letters: some people seek help to deal with sworn enemies or living enemies, especially in family disputes; Others seek legal aid to support a person who must appear in the holy court. Trial; Some people pray for special blessings or benefits "(282). However, the most common requirement is to deal with fertility and fertility problems by calling for healthy pregnancy and children (usually sons).
Letters and replies from the deceased
Writers receive responses from the dead in many different ways. People can hear the news of the deceased in their dreams, receive some information or "signs" during the day, ask for foreknowledge, or just find that their problems have been suddenly solved. After all, the dead are with God, and God is well known. Besides, God only means what is best for mankind. There is no reason to doubt that someone's request has been heard and will be answered.
Osiris is the king of justice, and only the soul in front of him will have greater influence than the soul that still exists on the earth. If this seems strange or "outdated" to modern readers, it should be remembered that many people follow the same beliefs today. The souls of the dead, especially those considered sacred, are still considered to attract God more than people on earth. Silverman comments:
In all cases, the deceased was urged to take action on behalf of the author, usually against the evil spirits who tortured the author and his family. This kind of request often refers to the underworld court and the role of the deceased in it: "You must bring a lawsuit against him because you have witnesses in the same city as the deceased." A bowl in the Louvre in Paris succinctly stated this principle: "You are an excellent person in the world, so you are a good person in the cemetery." Despite this legal problem, these letters have never been formulated, but the content and length are different. ( 142)
Obviously, writing letters to people in the afterlife is the same as writing letters to people in another city on earth. There is little difference between these two types of communication. In the 2nd century A.D., a young woman named Sarah Pias wrote a letter to her father that followed the same pattern:
Sarah Pias sends her greetings to her father and Lord Amonis. I've been praying for you to be all right, and I bow to Philotra on your behalf. After giving birth, I left Myos Hormos soon. I didn't take anything from Maios Holmes ... Give me a small water glass and a small pillow for your daughter. (Bagenal and Kerry Biord, 166)
A person will write to the dead, just like writing to the living.
The only difference between this letter and my son's letter to his late mother (C. Egyptian Phase I, 2 18 1- 2040 BC) is that Sarah Pias asked to send material goods, while her son asked for mental intervention. My son wrote a similar address at the beginning of the letter, and then, just as Sarah Pias explained how she needed a cup and pillow, he asked for help. He also reminded his mother what a filial son he was when she was alive, and wrote: "You did say to your son,' Bring me quails, I can eat them', and your son brought you seven quails, and you did eat them" (Robbins, 107). A letter like this also shows the deceased that the author did not "garble" when performing the necessary ceremony. This will be the most important thing to ensure that the soul of the deceased will continue to be remembered so that it can live well in the afterlife.
Once the soul has read this letter, the author just needs to wait patiently for a reply. If the authors didn't commit a crime and performed all the rituals correctly, they would get a positive response in some way. After making a request, the author usually promises to provide a gift in return and ensure good behavior. Robbins commented on this:
In a letter to the deceased in the first half of the year, a husband said to his wife, "I didn't say a spell in front of you, but let your name live on earth." He promised that if she cured him, he would do more for her. His illness: "When the sun rises, I sacrifice for you, and I build an altar for you". The woman's brother also asked for help. He said: "I don't have garbled words in front of you; I didn't accept your proposal. ( 173)
Because the dead keep their personal identity in the afterlife, people will write with the same brush strokes as before. If a person succeeds through threats, he will use threats, such as suggesting that if a person fails to realize his wishes, he will cut off the offerings in the grave. Sacrifice to the gods regularly in their shrines and temples, and the gods clearly heard and responded, so people think that the deceased did the same. The problem with this threat is that if a person stops offering, then a person is more likely to be troubled by anger than their request is approved. Just as the gods frown disrespectfully at the offerings of irascible people, so does the dead.
conclusion
Every ancient culture has some concepts about the afterlife, but Egypt is the most comprehensive and of course the most ideal. Egyptian archaeologist Jan assmann pointed out:
It is generally believed that theology is the exclusive result of biblical religion (if not Christianity), and this prejudice is unfounded for ancient Egypt. On the contrary, Egyptian theology is much more complicated than anything in the Bible. (2)
The Egyptians spared no effort-as can be seen from the obvious technical skills in the existing monuments and temples-which is as real as their view of eternity. Every action in a person's life has an impact not only on the present, but also on eternity. Life on earth is only a part of an eternal journey, and one's behavior will affect one's short-term and long-term future. A person can measure his behavior according to the standard of harmonious existence and the example set by the gods and nature, so as to determine what will happen in the afterlife.
Although the Egyptian version of Luke's story is similar, it is quite different. The rich in Setna II expect to be punished in the afterlife for ignoring the ma'at principle. The beggar in the story does not expect and is not qualified to be rewarded just because of suffering. After all, everyone has suffered, and the gods have no special recognition for it.
In Setna II, the rich and the poor are punished and rewarded, because their actions on earth have either humiliated ma'at or been respected. Although others may envy or sympathize with them, they may have anticipated what awaits them after death. In Luke's Christian version of Sedina II, neither the rich nor Lazarus knew what was waiting for them. In fact, the Luke version of this story may confuse the ancient Egyptians. If they have questions about the afterlife and the future, they can simply write a letter to ask.