(1) Seals from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period
The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were a period of great turmoil and change in Chinese history. In the fiercely changing social, political, and economic activities, tokens and certificates are needed. The production of seals requires complicated carving and smelting processes. Therefore, the use of seals is more difficult to copy and imitate than signatures and imprints. It is more credible and can play a role in preventing fraud and forgery. Therefore, its function as a tool of trust and a symbol of power is recognized by society. At that time, the central royal family gave letters of credence to the various vassal states, and various contracts were signed between the vassal states and even among the people, and all were stamped with seals as tokens of the alliance's compliance with the covenant. Seals are also symbols of power. When power agencies at all levels issue decrees and announce policies and decrees, they also use seals as a token of authority to make it known to the public. When the government appoints officials, they must also be granted a seal as proof of entrustment to exercise their powers, similar to the letters of appointment in later generations. After officials receive the seal, they must wear the seal on their bodies during official activities as a symbol of their position level. In economic activities, seals are used as symbols to collect taxes, manage markets, inspect goods, govern, and prohibit the circulation of prohibited items in the market. For example, the "Rigengdu soldiers' chariots and horses" seal collected by the Shanghai Museum is a branded horse seal. Its volume is several times larger than an ordinary seal. It is heated with fire and used to brand the number and ownership mark on the horse. Modern countries still use this method to manage military horses. Seals are also used in manufacturing industries to mark goods. Archeology has discovered that pottery and lacquerware from this period were stamped with the name of the manufacturer. For example, the pottery inscriptions discovered in Baijiazhuang, Zhengzhou in 1954 include engraved and stamped surnames, surnames, and dates. It may be the name of the pottery craftsman, the address of the factory or place of sale, and the mark of the year of production. The lacquerware unearthed from Suihudi in Yunmeng, Hubei has seals such as "Xianting", "Anting" and "Xushi" to indicate the place where the lacquerware was produced and sold.
The seals of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were made of copper and pressed on clay during use, and were called "鈢" [xixi] or "□" [xixi]. Later generations discovered the seals of this era, and they were collectively called ancient seals because of their long history. Whether the ancient bowl is an official seal with inscriptions for official duties, a private name seal, auspicious language seal, or a pattern seal, the shape of the ancient bowl is relatively small, so it is also called the "Warring States Small Bowl". Ancient jigs come in various shapes. In addition to the common square, there are also round, rectangular, rectangular and other shapes. The buttons are cast on the back of the seal, and nose-shaped buttons are the most common. All kinds of buttons are perforated for wearing. During the Warring States Period, official seals were worn by officials at all levels, and Su Qin claimed to wear the seals of the Six Kingdoms. The custom of wearing official seals continued until the Wei and Jin Dynasties. According to "Historical Records: Biography of Zhang Er and Chen Yu", Zhang Er and Zhao Wangxie were surrounded by the Qin army in Julu, but Chen Yu held back his troops and refused to save them. After the princes' troops broke out of the siege of Julu, Zhang Er complained about Chen Yu. Chen immediately took off his seal ribbon and handed it to Zhang Er. Zhang was shocked at first, but realized it after a while, and then wore it on his body, indicating that he accepted Chen Yu's resignation. According to historical records, the emperor's seal of the Han Dynasty was also worn with him. According to the "Book of Han Huo Guang Biography", after the death of Emperor Zhao of the Han Dynasty, Huo Guang and others suggested that He, the son of King Changyi, should be appointed to the throne. Soon they discovered that He was promiscuous and incompetent, and the officials had no choice but to recommend that the Empress Dowager depose the new emperor. They called Changyi Wang He and read out the empress dowager's edict. Then they took off the seal he was wearing and presented it to the empress dowager. A generational reorganization was completed. At that time, ordinary scholars also wore seals as decorations and mascots. Buried after death. Along with the seal, there are rings made of jade and tooth horns, huangs and xi operas, etc., which jingle when walking, and are regarded as symbols of noble moral integrity and elegant demeanor.
Most of the ancient seals were cast, except for a few that were chiseled with white text on cast copper seals. The process is similar to that of bronze ware, which requires carving, mold making, casting and other processes. When carving the mold, the solid line of the printed text is retained, and the bottom of the stamp is carved away. After the mold is turned over, the red text seal is cast; for the white text seal, the solid line of the printed text is removed during the mold making process, so that the printed text is concave on the surface of the seal. When carving the mold, the white-text sealing process is more convenient than the red-text sealing, so in ancient times, white-text seals were mostly used. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the bronze casting technology had developed to a mature stage, and most of the seal making techniques were extremely exquisite.
The ancient seal scripts are different in style due to the separation of countries. They are called the ancient seal scripts of the Six Kingdoms and belong to the seal script of the Great Seal Script system. Compared with Zhong Dingwen, the strokes are round and round, and the structure pursues pictographic meaning. It is natural and vivid, rich in dynamic beauty and rhythm. This kind of text that advocates change is used in printing, and the layout is often flexible in adding or subtracting strokes, moving radicals, and arranging the printed text without restraint. It is good at making lively interspersions, forming an ethereal and strange artistic style. Created many seal cutting works rich in artistic imagery.
The ancient bowl has exquisite craftsmanship, diverse functions, and rich shapes. It has a unique style in the art of seal cutting, marking the first development peak of Chinese seal cutting art. The artistic achievements of ancient bowls have been admired by the seal world since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and have had a profound impact on the formation of the national tradition of seal cutting art.
Situ, the capital of Pingyin during the Warring States Period
(2) Seals from the Qin, Han, Wei and Jin periods
After Qin Shihuang established a unified feudal empire, in order to strengthen centralization of power, he Measures to promote unification have been taken in all fields of politics, economy, and culture. In terms of regulations and systems, Qin Shihuang changed the traditional practice of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties in using the ritual vessel - tripod as a symbol of royal power in sacrificial rituals, and replaced it with casting seals. When formulating the rules and regulations, strict hierarchical sequence specifications were made for the name of the seal, the materials used, the shape, the style of the seal, etc. It is stipulated that the seal used by the emperor should be carved from jade of Chu State and called "Xi", and the seals of officials and others should be called "Yin" and "Zhang". A special agency called "Fujie Hecheng" was also set up to supervise the implementation of the seal system and strictly prohibit abuse beyond the limit. From then on, the system of emperors using seals was followed by successive dynasties in the feudal era. The emperor's jade seal became the evidence of the succession of imperial power, canonization and the treasure of the country. As a national treasure, jade seals are respected and treasured. For example, during the reign of Emperor Zhao of the Han Dynasty, "Huo Guangbo, Marquis Lu, was assisting the government. Something strange happened in the palace, and all the ministers were shocked overnight. Guang called Shang Fu Xi Lang to take the seal, but he refused to give it to him. Guang wanted to seize it. , Lang pressed his sword and said: "The minister's head can be obtained, but the seal cannot be obtained." This record in the "Han Shu" praises a small official who manages the seal and is loyal to his duties. Spirit. He dared to refuse to carry out orders from his superiors that were not in compliance with laws and regulations and risked his life to protect the national seal. Huo Guang was shocked and awarded this seal official a second-level promotion.
The loss of the jade seal is a symbol of the subjugation of the country. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Xin Mang's usurpation of power was marked by seizing the imperial seal. "Emperor Ping of the Han Dynasty died and the child was not yet established, so the seal was hidden in Changle Palace. Yu Mang came to the throne and asked for the seal. The Empress Dowager Yuan Emperor Wang Mang's aunt refused to give it, and Mang sent Anyang Marquis Wang Shun to discuss it. The Empress Dowager angrily scolded: 'If you think you are the new emperor, If you change the Zhengshuo uniform, you should also change it to make a seal. Why use this seal?" Later, Wang Mang exerted pressure again, and the Queen Mother threw the seal to the ground in anger. Wang Mang got the seal and completed the farce of usurping power (quoted from "Tongkao of Literature"). Chen Shubao of the Southern Dynasty also fled with the jade seal, announcing the demise of the Chen Dynasty. When the Forbidden City was being built in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the palace where the jade seals were stored was still placed in a prominent position behind the Hall of Supreme Harmony on the central axis. The artifact of spying has become a synonym for subverting the royal power.
The seals used by officials and common people in the Qin Dynasty are roughly similar in shape to the ancient bowls of the Warring States Period. Most of them are still made of copper, and the sealing style is still simple. An exquisite turtle-shaped button appears in the private seal. In addition to name seals, auspicious sentences appeared as seals, setting the precedent for later generations to use poems and mottos on seals. The outstanding feature of the Qin seal's form is that in addition to the border line, the seal surface is also added with a "field" shaped boundary. The seals of low-level officials are only half of the square, with a "日"-shaped border added, which is called a "half-pass seal".
The Qin seal style is called imitation seal script. It is simpler and more regular than the big seal script, and has a similar structure to the small seal script. The shape of the characters is nearly square, with circles in the squares, smooth operation, and a beautiful and steep structure. It has a lively and lively momentum. Due to the addition of the field-shaped boundary, the oblique seal of 欹〔qi七〕 is vivid and full of changes, forming a new stability and harmony within the regular boundary. In addition to the vermilion and white inscriptions, the seals of the Qin Dynasty also added a novel treatment technique of alternating vermilion and white. Within one seal, vermilion and white complement each other, and the seal with widely varying complex and simple strokes is interlaced with the engraved bottom and blank lines to create a visual balance, add interest and attract people.
The laws and regulations of the Han Dynasty were mostly based on the Qin system. The seal styles of the early Han Dynasty still retained the characteristics of the seals of the Qin Dynasty, and further stipulations were made in the system. According to the "Old Instruments of the Han Dynasty" written by Wei Hong of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the emperors of the Han Dynasty had six seals, all of which were made of expensive white jade and engraved with dragons and running tigers. The seals are: "Emperor's Seal", "Emperor's Seal", "Emperor's Letter", "Emperor's Letter", "Emperor's Seal", "Emperor's Letter", etc. The queen's seal is made with the same seal as the emperor's. In 1974, a middle school student in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, discovered a white jade seal buried in the soil on his way to school, with the words "Queen's Seal" engraved in white. After research by the archaeological department, it was confirmed that it is the jade seal of the empress of the Han Dynasty that is consistent with the documentary records. "Han Jiuyi" also records that at that time, it was stipulated that the seals used were called "zhang" or "yin" according to the level of official positions. For a private seal, the word "private seal" must be added after the name. At the same time, there are strict regulations on the material, button type and color of the seals of each grade.
The appointment of officials is marked by the issuance of a seal, which is similar to the function of a modern appointment letter. Officials also wear seals to indicate their rank and dignity. When something important happens, it will be sealed on the seal as a proof of the exercise of power. Government orders at all levels must be stamped with seals. Han private seals, in addition to name seals, also have zodiac seals and auspicious language seals. The forms include double-sided printing, multi-sided printing and overprinting. Xiao-shaped seals are engraved with images of humans, horses, cows, sheep, camels and other animals on the surface of the seal. There are also four-spirit patterns in the form of multi-sided seals, including blue dragon, white tiger, red bird, and Xuanwu (tortoise and snake) representing the directions of east, west, south, and north. Various animal images are exaggerated and romantic, showing the artistic characteristics of Han Dynasty paintings.
The Chinese seal style is called Miao (miaomiao) seal script, which is a seal script with the intention of official script. The character shape is square, the strokes are straight, and the structure is well-proportioned and neat. The momentum is strong and bright, with a simple, natural, plump and stable beauty. There are also some seals in Han Dynasty that are sealed with insect and bird seals. Chongniao seal script is a decorative seal script with the beginning and end strokes incorporating the image of insects and birds. The strokes are curled and lingering, and the movement is stretched and flexible. The insect bird is the archetypal form of the dragon and phoenix. The insect bird is used in the seal to represent the auspicious signs of the dragon and phoenix, conveying auspicious blessings. It reflects people's desire to pursue stability and happiness. During the Han and Wei dynasties, there was another type of seal called Hanging Needle Seal, which was based on Miao Seal and exaggerated the vertical strokes to make the final strokes vertically long and show a sharp edge. This seal script was often used on measuring instruments during the Eastern Han Dynasty.
Han seals are mostly made of cast white characters with thick and even lines, called large white characters and full white characters. They are stamped with mud seals and the seal characters are very clear and full. After the red ink paste was applied in later generations, the contrast between vermilion and white was sharp, plump and bright, and very eye-catching. In addition, there are many chiseled seals, mostly those worn by military commanders. There were frequent wars in the Han Dynasty, and new military commanders were often urgently needed during battles. When the seal ribbons were issued to these additional generals, there was no time to cast them calmly, so the engraving craftsmen in the army hurriedly carved the seals on the pre-cast seal blanks, so they were also called urgent seals. This type of chisel seal is mostly a thin white text seal. High-ranking officials use two chisels to write inscriptions, and the structure of the seals is relatively regular; low-level officials use one chisel to write inscriptions, which has a casual and natural temperament. The simple, natural, unembellished, clumsy and clever seal style presented in Jijiuzhang was followed by subsequent generations of seal carvers. It has enlightening significance for the formation of seal cutting art knife skills in later generations.
Han Dynasty, Sima in the Battle
The seals of the Han Dynasty were exquisitely cast, especially in terms of the formal beauty of the seal cutting art, showing an artistic style that was completely different from the ancient seals of the Warring States Period. The seal structure is rigorous and solemn with careful conceptual changes, and has a simple and magnificent aesthetic appeal, which has been advocated by seal carvers of all generations. Many seal carvers of later generations, especially the many seal carving art schools that were very powerful in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, all absorbed artistic nutrients from the Qin and Han seals, and inherited the artistic achievements of the Qin and Han Dynasties to innovate and seek development. The seals of the Qin and Han dynasties and the ancient 鈢 of the Warring States period stand side by side in the development history of Chinese seal cutting, forming a valuable cultural wealth for the Chinese nation and a treasure house of seal cutting art.
In ancient times, seals were all stamped on the sealing mud. There are a large number of physical remains to prove it. "Huainanzi·Qi Suxun": "If the seal is filled in," the filling refers to the sealing mud. In ancient times, sealing clay was used to seal letters and items. When sealing items, after tying the items with ropes, add mud seals to the knots of the ropes and both ends of the ropes. The mud seals play a role in sealing and can prevent the packaging from being opened. When sealing the letter, the bamboo and wooden slips were added with wood and tied tightly with ropes. There are square holes engraved on the wooden check. Thread both ends of the rope into the square holes, seal the square holes with mud, and add a seal. The wooden check, rope and sealing mud are integrated into one. Finally, write the name and location of the recipient on the wooden check, which is called "signing check". This sealing method can prevent the letter from being opened and leaked during the delivery process.
According to literature, the use of sealing mud has been popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Judging from the archaeological remains, it was extremely popular in the Han Dynasty. It is now known that more than 700 pieces of Han seals have been found in Shaanxi and Zibo, Shandong. In 1920, they were discovered at the Lelang site near Pyongyang, North Korea; in 1956, at the Han Tomb in Xiyue, Changsha, Hunan; in 1957, at the ruins of the ancient Han city in Hohhot; and in 1974, at the Changsha Ma Tomb. The sealing mud of the Han Dynasty was unearthed from the Wangdui Han Tombs, which shows that the area where sealing mud was used in the Han Dynasty was very vast.
After the invention of papermaking in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the production and use of paper became very common by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, gradually replacing bamboo slips as stationery supplies. The sealing mud is gradually weakening. The seal was changed to be printed in vermilion on the paper. "Book of Northern Qi·Lu Fahe Zhuan" records that "Emperor Wu of Shangliang wrote "Zhu Yin Ming Shang"", which is the earliest documentary record of the use of printing colors on paper.
Ink or vermilion imprints can also be seen on the Dharma books and paintings handed down from the Southern Qi and Tang dynasties, as well as the documents unearthed in Xinjiang.
Han Jade Seal: The Queen's Seal
After the clay sealing system was abolished, it slept underground for nearly a thousand years. In 1822 (the second year of Daoguang reign of the Qing Dynasty), after sealing mud was discovered in Sichuan, Shaanxi and other places, no one knew what it was at that time, so it was named "Yinfan". It was not until 1898 that it was named Fengni after research by Liu E, a scholar from the Qing Dynasty, and it was also documented in documents, allowing people to understand the custom of using ancient seals before the Tang Dynasty.
In modern international exchanges, fire seals are used to seal confidential credentials, and customs seals are used to inspect and release imported and exported goods. Their functions and methods of use are very similar to ancient Chinese mud seals. However, this is a cultural phenomenon that originated in the European Middle Ages and only emerged after the use of sealing mud in China was stopped.
(3) Seals in the Tang, Song, Liao and Jin dynasties
The seal system in the Tang and Song dynasties is very complicated according to literature records. There are detailed regulations on the seal specifications, materials used, seal button styles and seal ribbon colors of emperors and major officials. Wu Zetian questioned Qin Shihuang's naming of the seal after the emperor's seal. She determined that the word "Xi" had the same pronunciation as the word "Xi", which symbolizes death, and regarded it as ominous. In 694 AD (the first year of Yanzai), the seal of the emperor's seal was changed from "Emperor's Seal" to "Emperor's Treasure", and the size and thickness of the seal were used as a symbol of hierarchy. The highest level of official seals increased to about 55 mm, and then decreased in order. In this way, the volume of official seals in the Tang and Song Dynasties was one to two times or more larger than that in the Qin and Han Dynasties. In addition, it was also stipulated that official seals should all use Zhu inscriptions. Zhu inscriptions were also called Yang inscriptions, which combined the theory of Yin and Yang of the universe and reflected the divine right of kings. In fact, after the development of papermaking technology, paper was generally used as writing material, and the sealing method was different from the sealing method used in the pre-Qin and Han Dynasties. The tensile force of the sealing mud is limited, and the seal is too large, so the sealing mud is easily damaged. At the same time, after the seal is replaced with ink mud, the Zhu inscriptions printed on the paper are clearer and easier to read than the white inscriptions printed on the paper. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the seal surface expanded and its capacity increased. In order to fill the blank space on the seal surface, the phenomenon of cumbersome processing of fonts appeared. Characters with few strokes were bent and coiled. This method gradually developed into every word, forming a calligraphy style. It is called the Nine-fold Seal Script. In ancient times, nine was used as the number of poles. It was called nine stacks of poles to express the complexity of twists and turns, but it was not the exact number of twists and turns in each stroke. In fact, the nine-fold seal script of the Tang and Song dynasties is just a three- or four-fold fold of the initial strokes or vertical strokes. Among the seals of the Jin Dynasty, there are occasional examples of seals with 30% or 20% discount. The nine-fold seal script is cumbersome, rigid, lacks artistic charm, and is difficult to identify. Because it conforms to the so-called temple atmosphere pursued by the feudal rulers; the characters are difficult to read and meets the requirements of preventing forgery. Therefore, the nine-fold red seal that appeared in the Tang and Song Dynasties has been used by later Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. The dynasty continued to use special seal characters as official seals. In order to show the prestige awarded by the imperial court, the Nine-fold Seal Script was also called Shangfang Dazhuan.
In the Tang and Song dynasties, official seals added the function of "marking ownership", that is, adding collection seals to the calligraphy, paintings and other artworks collected by the palace. In the early Tang Dynasty, an institution for the palace to collect art was established. All collections viewed by the emperor were stamped with the "Zhenguan" era seal as a mark of the collection of the imperial palace. After that, the Southern Tang, Western Shu, Northern Song Dynasty, and Southern Song Dynasty all followed this system. After the Southern Song Dynasty, private collection gradually became a trend, and the forms of collecting appreciation seals also increased, and specialized seal types were gradually formed. The rise of calligraphy and painting collection seals has led to the combination of seals and calligraphy and painting works, which not only opened up new uses for the art of seal cutting, but also made seal creation, in the pursuit of harmony with the art of calligraphy and painting, shift from being purely practical functions to ingenious management. The artistic creation makes the art of seal cutting unique.
There are very few physical remains of private seals in the Tang and Song Dynasties. Only some name seals and restaurant name seals can be seen on documents, calligraphy and paintings of the same period. For example, there are only a few of the "Duan Ju Shi" of Li Bi in the Tang Dynasty, the "Chu State Mi Fu" of the Song Dynasty Mi Fu (fufu), the "Zhurong Queen", and the "Mi surname seal", etc. The Tang and Song Dynasties were an era of unprecedented prosperity and development of Chinese literature and art. Masters who were proficient in regular script and cursive script emerged one after another in the calligraphy circle, arousing people's admiration and praise. Their achievements attracted the attention of society. However, there are very few calligraphers who specialize in seal script. The only famous seal script calligrapher is Li Yangbing. The art of seals was also in a similarly low state during the 700 years from the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Song, Liao and Jin Dynasties.
The seal of the Secretary of the Tang Dynasty
The seal of Deputy Marshal Jin
(4) The seal of the Yuan Dynasty
Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty After moving to Dadu, it was announced that the text formulated by the national preceptor Ba Si would be the official document of the Yuan Empire.
Following the system of the Tang and Song dynasties, when issuing seals to government officials at all levels, the seals were all made in Pasiba script. Influenced by this style of sealing, the Mongolian nobles at that time carved private seals and also printed them with the signature of Ba Si Wen as a special symbol to prove their credit. Therefore, a very unique form of seal appeared in the Yuan Dynasty - "monogram". The monogram seals are all in red, and the seal shapes are mostly rectangular, and some are gourd-shaped or pipa-shaped. The popular sealing style is the surname in Chinese regular script on the top and a signature inscription below. Because it was popular in the Yuan Dynasty, it was also called Yuan Ya.
Basiba seals or monograms were only popular among officials, military generals and Mongolian nobles in the Yuan Dynasty. Civilian officials and the majority of Han people still used seals with seal scripts. The famous painter Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322 AD) of the Yuan Dynasty also had high achievements in calligraphy. He is proficient in various calligraphy styles including Zhuan, Zhou, Li, Kai, Xing and Cao, and is famous for his beautiful, gentle, smooth and vigorous style. The Yuan Dynasty was the era when literati paintings were formed. Literati paintings pursued the combination of poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sealing. It was popular to add poems, inscriptions, and seals on paintings with the author's name, font size, nickname, and poems and mottos. Zhao Mengfu disdained the use of seals with poor seal writing skills. He designed the seal himself and turned to printers to create a seal for his own use that was in harmony with his calligraphy and painting style. Zhao Mengfu's seal script absorbs the characteristics of Li Yangbing's jade seal script of the Tang Dynasty, with round strokes, neat lines and elegant style. It is cast into a seal with Zhu inscriptions. The strong Zhu inscriptions are connected with the fine lines to form an artistic style that is sparse, ethereal, and beautiful. Since Zhao Mengfu was the first calligrapher to design seals, later seal carvers often respected him as a seal carver. The seal form of the Zhuwen seal he designed is called Yuanzhuwen (or Yuanzhuwen). The artistic characteristics of the round vermilion seal are regarded as an elegant and beautiful seal model in the art of seal cutting. It is known as the "iron wire seal" and was valued and followed by seal carvers of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Yuan Mongolian Civil Service Seal
Zhao Mengfu also made a record of the ancient seals, titled "History of Seals". At the same time, Wu Qiuyan made a relatively in-depth study of the art of seal cutting. His "Xuegubian" was China's first monograph specifically discussing the art of seal cutting. It drew on traditional painting theory, calligraphy theory and poetry theory to comment on the development of seal art. Laws theoretically promoted the formation of Chinese seal cutting science.
(5) Seals of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
The Ming Dynasty ruled by the Han landlord class established in 1368 and the Qing Dynasty established by the Manchu nobles who were overthrown in 1911 successively ruled China For more than 500 years. The Ming and Qing Dynasties were a period of drastic changes in China's feudal society.
In order to heal the economic depression and people's dire livelihood caused by the war that overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, the rulers of the early Ming Dynasty adopted a series of measures to ease class conflicts and develop production, which rapidly improved agriculture, handicrafts and commerce. After recovery and development, foreign trade also developed accordingly. The development of economy and handicraft industry has led to the prosperity of cities. In addition to Beijing and Nanjing, more than 30 emerging cities have appeared across the country. In the Qing Dynasty, the emergence of capitalism accelerated the development of these cities and the prosperity of the commodity economy in coastal cities. In these cities, the gathering of humanities, developed culture and convenient transportation have created living conditions for the emergence of professional artists. In such a social environment, the art of seal cutting has shown unprecedented prosperity.
The seals of the Ming and Qing Dynasties formed a trend of separating practical and artistic functions. Seals that focus on practical value have become more popular. Frequent economic and social exchanges have made it necessary for high-ranking officials and ordinary people to use seals as instruments of trust in social life. The social demand for seals has increased, and resources are abundant. The discovery of stone seal materials that were cheap and easy to make also made it possible for seals to become popular. A handicraft industry based on engraving seals emerged at the historic moment.
The production specifications of official seals during the Ming and Qing Dynasties were strict. The seal system of the Ming Dynasty was extremely complete, with clear regulations on the texture and style of official seals at all levels. For example, the official seals of the royal family and governments at all levels use gold and jade sealing materials to cast nine-fold inscriptions; the seals of generals use copper materials and cast willow leaf seals; the seals of feudal princes use jade materials and engraved jade seals; and the supervisory censors use eight-fold inscriptions. wait. The Qing Dynasty followed the printing system of the Ming Dynasty, but the seal text could be written in Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian and Tibetan according to the area where the seal was issued. Most official seals use both Chinese and Manchu characters in one seal. Generally, the official seal is a straight button with a long handle. The seals used by feudal lords and above were all carved with exquisite dragon buttons. The shape, seal design and production technology of official seals have all been greatly improved compared with the Song and Yuan Dynasties.
What marks the prosperity and development of seal cutting art in the Ming and Qing Dynasties is the artistic seal.
The emergence of calligraphy and painting collection appreciation seals in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and the rise of literati in the Yuan Dynasty's idea of ??combining painting, poetry, calligraphy, painting and seals formed a combination of seal cutting art, calligraphy and painting art. The development of calligraphy and painting art in the Ming and Qing dynasties also led to the simultaneous development of seal cutting art. In the early Ming Dynasty, the painter Wang Mian (1287-1358 AD) was the first to carve seals from flower milkstone. The discovery of stone sealing materials provided an opportunity for a large number of literati, calligraphers, and painters with high cultural accomplishments to participate in seal cutting creation. Seal cutting was no longer just a The craft products cast by craftsmen are no longer limited to being credential tools, but have become works of art created by seal carvers. At the same time, they are also cultural commodities that have entered the field of commodity circulation. Seal cutting works are recognized and circulated by society in the form of commodities, which objectively promotes the formation of diversified seal cutting art styles. The development of hermeneutics and archeology has provided seal carvers with favorable conditions to learn from the ancient seal carving art tradition. In economically developed areas, seal carvers are relatively concentrated. They have teachers and students one after another, and exchanges between teachers and friends gradually form a school of seal cutting art concentrated in a certain area. The founders of these seal-cutting art schools are mostly calligraphers, painters or poets with comprehensive artistic accomplishments. Each has "external seal-cutting skills" and pursues originality and creativity in seal-cutting creation and develops artistic personality. They have profound artistic skills and are good at absorbing the essence of ancient artistic heritage to form a unique artistic style. They influenced and led groups of followers, either passing on their skills or influencing each other artistically, and promoted the development and improvement of seal cutting art. The situation of various schools of seal cutting art makes seal cutting art continue to develop and present a colorful artistic style. The seal cutting art of the Ming and Qing Dynasties made groundbreaking progress in terms of creative scale, artistic achievements, and theoretical research, pushing Chinese seal cutting art to a new stage of mature development.