Napoleon led a powerful French army to sweep across Europe like a hurricane and easily conquered this land in central Europe.
The goddess of peace was removed as a trophy from the Brandenburg Gate and shipped back to France.
The humiliation came again, awakening the painful memories hidden in the hearts of Germans.
In the past hundreds of years, this land called the European Corridor has been the battlefield of the whole of Europe. Germans often become mercenaries of neighboring European powers, killing each other in their own land.
1648, European countries signed the Peace Treaty of Westphalia after the "Thirty Years' War" for hegemony, and finally determined the division of Germany in the form of law. In this year, this land was divided into 3 14 countries, although they also shared the name "German Holy Roman Empire", but
1806 When Napoleon's army invaded flagrantly, the so-called empire could not resist. Prussia and Austria, the two largest countries in the empire, suffered a crushing defeat, and Prussia was forced to cede half its territory and pay10.50 billion francs in war reparations. The Holy Roman Empire of Germany collapsed.
When even a nominal country no longer exists in this land, people think of the sigh of the German poet Schiller: "Germany? Where is it? I can't find that place. " Schiller's friend Goethe simply said that there is not a city or even a place, which makes us firmly point out that this is Germany. If we ask this question in Vienna, the answer is that this is Austria; If we ask this question in Berlin, the answer is that this is Prussia. Where is the moral will? This historic problem torments the soul of every German.
German poets use poetry to explore the future of the nation; German musicians express their passion for struggle with notes; German philosophers use ideas to inspire supreme national worship.
Interview: August, a professor of modern history at Humboldt University in Berlin, Germany? Winkler
The theme of Germany19th century history is unity and freedom. At that time, Germany was not a unified nation-state like France and Britain. /kloc-The German unification movement has been pursuing the establishment of a nation-state and a constitutional state in the 20th century.
18 14, Napoleon was defeated by the anti-French alliance formed by European countries. Under the leadership of Britain and Russia, a "German Federation" consisting of 38 states was established, but each state still has independent sovereignty. Because European powers have been reluctant to see a unified Germany rise in central Europe.
After the defeat, France returned the goddess of peace, but the goddess of peace who returned to Brandenburg Gate still faced a divided Germany.
Perhaps the reason why history is intriguing lies in its complexity and subtlety. Napoleon the conqueror aggravated the humiliation of this land, but Napoleon became the promoter of German reunification. He wiped out the feudal order that existed in this land for hundreds of years by force and spread the principle of freedom and equality advocated by the French Revolution everywhere.
Under the guidance of the French Revolution, Germans began to seek to establish a unified and free country.
Reutlingen is a beautiful and quiet town in southern Germany. For more than 200 years, the town has enjoyed Friedrich? The glory brought by Liszt. In the process of German unification, Liszt was considered as the most active and influential figure.
Interview: Professor Oygen of the University of Reutlingen, Germany? Vendler
Liszt believes that Germany can only compete with Britain and France if it realizes political reunification. This kind of unification can be achieved not by revolution, but by peaceful means, and Liszt knows very well that this kind of unification can not be achieved overnight, but should be realized gradually, that is to say, he thinks that Germany's economic union should be realized first.
In the19th century, when people were still used to solving ethnic problems by war, Liszt's thought was obviously a little ahead. The unification from economy to politics is not only a unique vision of an economist, but also a bold idea. The realistic reason for putting forward this idea is that Germany's economic development is hindered by division.
In the Customs Museum in Hamburg, there are some currencies used by German states. At its peak, more than 6,000 kinds of currencies were used in this land.
In addition to chaotic currencies, countries have set up numerous barriers and imposed heavy tariffs. Now it's only a few hours' drive from Berlin to Switzerland, but at the beginning of the 9th century, they had to go through 10 countries, go through 10 procedures, exchange 10 currencies and pay 10 tariffs.
Interview: Professor Oygen of the University of Reutlingen, Germany? Vendler
On the one hand, these tariffs seriously hinder internal trade, on the other hand, they also hinder the development of German economy and the competitiveness of German products. It is for this reason that Liszt believes that if backward Germany wants to develop and reach the level of developed industrial countries at that time, it must eliminate these internal tariffs, create possibilities for the development of German economy and improve its international competitiveness.
Liszt called on all countries to establish an all-German customs union, for which he lobbied everywhere. But many small countries deported him. Austria, the second largest country in the German Confederation, called him "the most dangerous instigator". Because all countries don't want to cancel tariffs, the most important source of income.
Liszt is weak. For a long time, he didn't have a fixed occupation and income, and he didn't have a formal assistant. But all this failed to stop him. For more than ten years, Liszt has traveled to almost all countries. Finally, Prussia, the largest country in the German Confederation, accepted Liszt's suggestion.
Economic integration is like a trickle under the hard ice, slowly converging. The day of breaking the ice came relentlessly.
1 834+1October1day at 0: 00, on the borders of 18 German states, wagons full of goods flooded in, and for the first time in hundreds of years, it was not necessary to stop at the border to pay transit tax. The German Customs Union was established. Its leader is Prussia.
Interview: Mei Zhaorong, former German ambassador to China.
The establishment of customs union is the requirement of the development of productive forces, which makes goods, capital and labor flow freely, thus contributing to the establishment of a unified national market. In the long run, it also created a premise for the reunification of Germany. Prussia accepted Liszt's suggestion and became the leader of establishing a customs union, and actually became the leader of future German reunification. History has proved this.
The customs union was established, and Liszt was still poor. 1846, under the impact of his son's death, Liszt, who was poor and ill, chose to commit suicide and left Germany, where he was placed with infinite expectations. Liszt left with regrets, but history left no regrets for Germany. After more than half a century's efforts, a unified Germany is about to emerge.
Various countries have joined the customs union, and the railway network centered on Prussia has gradually become a powerful artery connecting this land. By the middle of19th century, the total industrial output value of the customs union area was the third in Europe, second only to Britain and France. The goal of German economic unification has been achieved, and the road to political unification is dawning.
1848, two years after Liszt's death, revolutions broke out in several German states, overthrowing the absolute monarchy and establishing a constitutional monarchy. Almost all the revolutions were successful in a short time. Resolving the reunification of Germany politically is the primary task of this bourgeois-dominated revolutionary movement. As a result, representatives from various countries sent representatives in succession to form an all-German parliament in Frankfurt, trying to establish a unified and free federal country like the United States of America through consultation.
However, when the parliament was still arguing and arguing, the old regime quickly rallied to fight back, and the German States quickly restored their respective monarchies, and the members of the entire German parliament were recruited back by the States.
Interview: Mei Zhaorong, former German ambassador to China.
1848 the failure of bourgeois democratic revolution has caused two serious consequences: the first consequence is that the reunification of Germany cannot be realized; The second consequence is that the autocratic system still exists. Therefore, Germany lost the opportunity to achieve German reunification through peaceful and people-oriented ways.
The road to peaceful reunification through parliamentary democracy has failed. How will the road to German reunification continue? Who will shoulder the heavy responsibility of this history?
Hamburg, a city in northern Germany, is Otto's hometown? Feng? Bismarck memorial hall.
In the memorial hall, a precious oil painting has been hung for 120 years, recording the historic moment of a country and a person.
Interview: Andrea, director of Bismarck Memorial Hall in Hamburg, Germany? hope
This painting is a birthday gift from the German emperor to Bismarck. This painting shows the scene of 187 1 18 in the mirror hall of the Palace of Versailles in Paris. The emperor wanted to highlight his personal image in this painting, so the painter drew a white uniform for Bismarck.
Bismarck, wearing a white military uniform, is not only the first protagonist in oil painting, but also his performance in the history of German reunification is so vivid that he has become an example for the prime ministers of developing countries to follow.
Li Hongzhang, an important official of the Qing Empire, known as "Oriental Bismarck", visited him in Wan Li. During the Meiji Restoration, the first Japanese interior minister, Toshiichi Kubo, once compared himself to "Bismarck of the East".
In what way did Bismarck, who was so admired, dominate the unification of Germany?
1On September 30th, 862, Bismarck, who had just been appointed Prime Minister of Prussia, walked into the parliament and delivered a strongly worded speech. He said: "The major contemporary problems cannot be solved by words and the resolutions of the majority, but must be achieved through serious struggle, which can only be solved by iron and blood." Since then, Bismarck has been called "Prime Minister of Iron and Blood".
Interview: Michael, President of Bismarck Foundation in Germany? Ekeng Hans
At that time, Bismarck emphasized in his speech that only in this way can reunification be achieved, that is, through the policy of strengthening the army and using the help of the army, rather than simply voting by the parliamentary majority.
Using the help of the army is a long-standing tradition in Prussia. Historically, Prussia was called "barracks in peacetime" because of its large number of troops. Bismarck believes that parliamentary democracy like 1848 cannot achieve national unity. Under his leadership, Prussia adopted an almost dictatorial rule. Parliament was dissolved many times and the king became the supreme commander of the Prussian army. However, Bismarck, the bloody prime minister, was not reckless. He clearly knows that a new Germany will inevitably have an impact on the original big country. The political map of Europe is like a chess game. Bismarck should regard the powers as chess pieces, weigh them carefully and look for opportunities in the cracks.
Interview: Juergen, President of the International Historical Society? Koka
Bismarck was a very clever and far-sighted man. He is not a gamer or a gambler, but an intellectual with a sense of history.
Among the European countries demanding balance of power, Bismarck gave a vivid diplomatic performance. He made sure that Britain was prepared in every way; He supported Russia in suppressing the Polish uprising in exchange for Russia's silence. He verbally agreed to merge Luxembourg and Belgium into France in exchange for France's neutrality.
In Bismarck's view, there has never been any unchangeable principle in history, no country can't form an alliance, and no country can't be its own enemy.
Interview: Michael, President of Bismarck Foundation in Germany? Ekeng Hans
Bismarck has always regarded Prussia as a powerful country, in addition, he has been trying to test it. This is very important. He understands politics as an "operable art". On this basis, we can know how other European powers will view the reunification of Germany.
After using enough political wisdom in diplomacy, Bismarck can finally practice his iron oath.
1866, Prussia pointed the gun at Austria. Just two years ago, they defeated the northern enemy Denmark. Bismarck was not sure to win the war. He went to the battlefield with poison. In the end, Prussia won a great victory and Austria left the German Confederation. Bismarck patted the table and shouted, I defeated them all, all of them!
Four years later, the Franco-Prussian War broke out. The Germans went straight to the suburbs of Paris, and the French emperor was defeated and captured. The last obstacle to German reunification was removed.
187 1 year 1 month 18, guns rumbled in Paris, France, but the mirror hall of Versailles, 20 kilometers away, was solemn. In these mirrors set to show off the elegance of the French monarch, many Prussians appeared.
On this day, the German Empire was announced at the Palais de France. This year marks the 65th anniversary of Napoleon's entry into Brandenburg Gate.
A brand-new and unified German nation-state has emerged. After nearly 70 years of hard pursuit, what kind of country has the Germans built? What will this country that European powers never want to see bring to Europe?
Interview: Professor Li Gongzhen, School of History, Wuhan University, China.
Germany came late, and the result surprised the whole world as soon as it appeared. Because it is far ahead of France in population, gross national product, steel output, coal output and railway mileage, second only to Britain, which has dominated Europe for a century. Germany developed from the desperate situation of national subjugation into a world-renowned power, and adopted the measures of sowing seeds. Among these measures, the most important one is to attach great importance to the cultivation of national quality as the basis of national rejuvenation. Marshal Mao Qi, who defeated France and captured the French emperor, once said, "Proust's victory has long been decided on the podium of the primary school teacher."
Zettel is located in the northernmost part of Germany, near Denmark. 180 years ago, this was the most remote and backward village in Prussia.
Today, keitel Primary School is still a place for children in small towns to study. It is also a primary school museum that preserves the original appearance of Prussia, Germany.
This is a wall chart used by 1820 to teach natural science. At that time, the children already knew what the Great Wall of China was like tens of thousands of kilometers away from them.
Children can also learn about different races and different living environments living on five continents; In the primary school laboratory, they can get in touch with the latest natural science knowledge. This curriculum records the courses offered to primary school students at that time: world geography, nature, arithmetic, German, calligraphy, religion and gymnastics.
It is almost free for students to attend school, mainly in the form of payment in kind, but they will be punished for not attending school. The school also kept detailed records of that year.
Interview: Ante, the former museum of the German Zeitel Primary School Museum? Sandel
What we see here is the school in keitel Town registered in June 1845, and the registration of students' absence from class last month. For example, the student whose number is 16 is Friedrich Wanken. He was absent from class for 13 days in May, so his parents had to pay a fine of 39 silver coins.
In Prussia, education is regarded as a necessary obligation of citizens as well as military service, and the state must provide citizens with opportunities for education. Free education began in the middle of19th century. On the eve of German reunification, the enrollment rate of school-age children reached 97.5%.
Interview: Eyerich, Associate Professor of Bavarian Academy of Sciences? Fawkes
From the beginning, the younger generation should learn to live not only for themselves, but also for the whole nation.
As early as the invasion of Napoleon's army, King William III of Prussia pointed out the way out for Germany. He said: "This country must use spiritual strength to make up for the physical loss. It is because of poverty that education is needed. I have never heard of a country with poor education and the country is ruined. " While popularizing education, Prussia has established a modern university with equal emphasis on teaching and scientific research.
When Prussia was still paying huge war reparations to Napoleon, Humboldt University in Berlin was born. The king took out his last possessions and donated the luxurious king's uterus as a university building. At the same time, he also accepted a request put forward by the university, that is, the state must give material support to teaching and scientific research activities, but must not interfere with education and learning activities.
At the same time, it has the guarantee of the state and full freedom, which has made German scientists. There are many black and white photos in the corridor of the main building of Humboldt University in Berlin. They are all professors who have made important achievements in various fields, and 29 of them have the same identity: Nobel Prize winners.
Interview: Professor Ludwig of Humboldt University in Berlin, Germany? Feng? Bruch
Scientists in these German universities all call themselves "German scientists". The significance of this concept, as the famous composer Wagner said, is that scientists devote themselves to scientific research and participate in this work out of their own will, regardless of their own personal interests. This dedication is the key reason for Germany's rise as a world power.
Interview: Juergen, President of the International Historical Society? Koka
Education, philosophy and science play an important role in Germany. Modern universities in Europe have appeared in Germany and become models in many other European countries, such as the University of Berlin founded by Humboldt. In the modernization process of Germany, education, science and universities have played an important role, which is different from the modernization process of the United States, Britain and France.
Germany lags behind Britain in the process of industrialization, but it has embarked on the road of modernization in its own unique way. National education has trained high-quality citizens for Germany, universities have brought creativity and inventiveness to Germany, and intelligence has become the most important resource of this country. With this resource, Germany led the second industrial revolution in the19th century and stood at the forefront of the world's scientific and technological development.
Many important inventions in the electrical age were born in Germany. From 185 1 to 1900, Germany has made 202 major scientific and technological innovations and inventions, surpassing the sum of Britain and France, ranking second in the world. Until today, Germany is still one of the most important scientific and technological powers in the world.
187 1 In the forty years after reunification, the German economy has made rapid progress. Germany's coal, steel and iron output ranks first in Europe; The total output of chemical products ranks first in the world; By 19 10, Germany's total industrial output value exceeded all European countries.
On the basis of science and education, Bismarck found a development model in which the late-developing countries catch up with the advanced countries: the state is regarded as a powerful force to promote economic development, and the state formulates policies and laws to guide the direction of economic operation, and the earliest social welfare system in the world is established by virtue of the state's strength. These measures overcome the disadvantages of the free market economy advocated by Britain to a certain extent, thus providing new choices for some underdeveloped countries on the road of development.
When the world looks at the rapidly rising Germany with admiration, it often ignores that it is the relatively peaceful development environment after Germany's reunification that supports all this. It was Bismarck, the leader of the empire, who created this peaceful environment. He has won valuable opportunities for the development of this country, which is constantly constrained by European powers.
Interview: Michael, President of Bismarck Foundation in Germany? Ekeng Hans
Bismarck was different from other politicians of his time. Although he agreed to build a strong army at that time, he did not agree to use the army to expand the country's territory. In other words, although Bismarck hoped that Germany would become a powerful country in Central Europe, he was responsible for ensuring peace in the whole of Europe and avoiding the turmoil of the Napoleonic era. The result is only to destroy countries and poison the relations between countries.
However, navigators who advocate maintaining balance among European countries are getting old.
Written in 1890, this cartoon shows a scene in which Bismarck was forced to resign and Emperor William II took full charge of the German Empire. Comics record the turning point of German national strategy.
At this moment, a unified and powerful Germany, which has always worried European powers, has begun to exude a disturbing atmosphere, and fear is becoming a reality.
Interview with Gu, President of German Research Association in China.
After William II came to power, he changed Bismarck's domestic and foreign policies to a great extent. Because, in the process of rapid economic development in Germany, the German junker landlords and monopoly bourgeoisie infiltrated and merged with each other, which was impossible in Germany at that time, or it was impossible to move towards democracy and parliament. Another situation is that Germany's industrial and economic development was very rapid at that time, and its advanced industry and advanced science and technology were closely combined with Prussian militarism. Therefore, the close combination of these two things made the German Empire at that time rapidly develop into an extremely aggressive empire. Therefore, Kaiser Wilhelm II was very arrogant at that time, and the so-called God arranged for us to dominate and rule all countries.
The first Oracle issued by the young emperor William II after he ascended the throne was "Give My Army". He declared: "My army and I are one, and we were born to help each other. Whether God will give us peace or storm, we will stand together. " The militarism inherent in the Prussian tradition and strengthened in the process of German reunification was summoned back by William II. Germany began a journey to compete for world hegemony.
19 13, when Germany completely surpassed Britain and became the second economic power in the world after the United States, the German chariot started. 19 14, the first world war broke out; 1939, World War II broke out. Germany became the birthplace of two world wars in human history.
In the most prosperous commercial center in Berlin today, there is an old church that was blown black and blue by the war.
In front of the church stands a steel sculpture called Berlin. Division and unification, the recurring plots in German history, are silently solidified in this silent sculpture.
After World War II, Germany split in two. History seems to have returned to the starting point, and that heavy proposition is once again before the Germans: Germany, where is it? The Germans must answer again.
The two world wars launched by Germany wrote the darkest and most painful page in the history of human civilization, and countless lives and homes perished in the disaster of war. This is a history that the whole world will never forget and will never forget. How to deal with their unbearable past is a test that this once irrational nation must face. The ghost of 600,000 Jews killed in World War II is waiting, and injured Europe and the world are waiting.
1970 On a cold winter day, the newly appointed German Federal Chancellor Brandt came to the Jewish Memorial Monument in Warsaw, Poland. During World War II, 2.5 million Jews in Poland were tortured in concentration camps and finally died. In the cold wind, Brandt walked step by step to the grave of the victims. Under the eyes of the whole world, the heroic anti-Nazi fighter in World War II made an action that shocked everyone: he fell to the ground.
A reporter wrote: "He didn't have to do this. He knelt for all those who had to kneel but didn't. "
Interview: Juergen, President of the International Historical Society? Koka
The Germans sincerely accepted the heavy side of their history. They discussed but did not argue fiercely, did not deny that they started the Second World War, did not shirk their responsibility for the Jewish Holocaust, and did not deny that they endured the Nazi dictatorship of 12 years. Looking back on their mistakes sincerely has helped the Germans greatly ease the difficulties of national rejuvenation.
Brandt knelt down and Germany stood up. After World War II, the Federal Republic of Germany began to pay huge compensation to the victims and their survivors who were persecuted by Germany and France. The education department regards fascist violence as the central content of history textbooks, emphasizing that "the key task is to educate the next generation" and "it is our duty to prevent the recurrence of historical tragedies".
Germany, which has the courage to shoulder historical responsibility, has returned to the embrace of Europe and the world stage.
199010/on October 3rd, the goddess of peace at Brandenburg Gate once again witnessed the fate of the country, and Germany, which had been divided for 4 1 year, was reunified. This day is designated as Germany's National Day.
Germany was reunified again, not with blood and iron, but in a peaceful environment. Like 120 years ago, the Germans once again created an economic miracle. After two world wars, this country has developed into the world's third largest economic power after the United States and Japan through the efforts of a generation. As an important member of the European Union, it has also found a way to strengthen itself by revitalizing Europe. Germany, where is it? Perhaps, the persistent search for nearly two centuries has already had the answer. In this long search, the great sadness and joy experienced not only became the collective memory of the German nation, but also wrote an unforgettable history for the rising and rising powers.