The art of creating images that reflect social life and express the author's thoughts and feelings by means of language. It originated from human productive labor. Oral literature first appeared, usually combined with music to form lyric poems that can be sung.
Songs. China's The Book of Songs, Indian Ramayana and ancient Greek Irion Ji are the earliest written documents. According to the classification of European traditional literature theory, literature can be divided into three categories: poetry, prose and drama. China comes first.
In the Qin Dynasty, all works written in words were collectively referred to as literature, and literary works were gradually listed separately after Wei and Jin Dynasties. In modern times, literature is usually divided into four categories: poetry, novel, prose and drama.
(1) one of social ideology.
In ancient China and foreign countries, all books and documents written in words were collectively referred to as documents. In modern times, it refers to the art of shaping images with words to reflect social life and express thoughts and feelings, so it is also called "language art". China Wei, Jin, North and South.
In the dynasty, literature was divided into two categories: verse and prose, while in modern times it was usually divided into poetry, prose, novel, drama, film and television literature, and there were many styles of various genres.
② One of the four families of Confucius. The Analects of Confucius advanced: "Literature, Ziyou, Xia Zi." Xing Bingshu said: "The article is well read, including Ziyou and Xia Zi." He also teaches subjects for aristocratic children. "The Biography of Lei Cizong in the Book of Song Dynasty" said: "Pay attention to art, so that Danyang can establish metaphysics, and the prince leads He Chengtian.
(3) refers to the cultivation of the word chapter. Yuan Jie's "Da Tang Fu": "Who will do it if the text is not old?"
(4) official name.
The Han dynasty was placed in the county kingdom, or "literature" or "literary history", which originated from the later generations' guides. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty specially set up the subject of "Xianwen" to select talents, and the talents recommended by the counties went to Beijing to take the exam. The recommended people were called
"Good literature". "Virtue" refers to a person with good moral character and noble morality; "Wen" refers to people who are proficient in Confucian classics. After Wei and Jin Dynasties, it was called "literary engagement". In the Tang Dynasty, it was called "Doctor" in Yuzhou County, and now it is renamed "Wen".
Learning ",princes and kings also set up" literature ". Abolished in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
(5) periodicals.
One of the publications of the Left Alliance. 1932 was established in Shanghai on April 25th. It published articles on popular literature by Feng Xuefeng and Qu Qiubai. Only one issue was banned by the Kuomintang government. (2) Literature publishing.
Wu. 1933 was established in Shanghai in July. Zheng Zhenduo, Fu Donghua and Wang Tongzhao successively served as the chief editors. They published Literary Creation and Literary Theory, which was an influential literary publication in 1930s. 1937 1 1.
The fourth issue of Volume 9 was closed, and 52 issues were published.
culture
Generally speaking, culture is a social phenomenon, a product created by people for a long time, and also a historical phenomenon and the accumulation of social history. Accurately speaking, culture refers to the history, geography, customs, traditional customs, lifestyle, literature and art, code of conduct, way of thinking and values of a country or a nation.
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Classification of culture H.H. Stern (1992: 208) divides culture into two concepts: broad sense and narrow sense according to its structure and category. Culture in a broad sense is capital culture.
With a big c), the narrow sense of culture is lowercase culture (with a small culture.
C) In a broad sense, culture refers to the sum of material wealth and spiritual wealth created by human beings in the process of social and historical development. It includes three aspects: material culture, institutional culture and psychological culture. Material culture refers to human creation.
Various material civilizations, including transportation, clothing, daily necessities, etc. , is a visible dominant culture; Institutional culture and psychological culture refer to life system, family system,
Social system, mode of thinking, religious belief and aesthetic taste belong to intangible recessive culture, including literature, philosophy and politics. Culture in a narrow sense refers to people's common social habits, such as food, clothing, housing and transportation.
Travel, customs, lifestyle, code of conduct, etc.
H?mmerli (1982) divided culture into information culture, behavior culture and achievement culture. Information culture refers to knowledge about society, geography and history. Mastered by ordinary educated native speakers. Behavioral culture refers to people's lifestyles, actual behaviors, attitudes and values. This is the most important factor for successful communication. Achievement culture refers to artistic and literary achievements, which is a traditional cultural concept.
The internal structure of culture includes the following levels: material culture, institutional culture, behavioral culture and psychological culture.
The material cultural layer is the sum of human material production activities and products, and it is a tangible cultural thing with material entities.
Institutional culture layer is a variety of social behavior norms established by human beings in social practice.
The behavioral culture layer is a behavior pattern in the form of customs, habits and habits.
Mentality culture is the subjective factors such as values, aesthetic taste and way of thinking bred by human beings in social consciousness activities, which is equivalent to the concepts of spiritual culture and social consciousness that people often say. This is the core of culture.
have
Some anthropologists divide culture into three levels: high culture, including philosophy, literature, art and religion; Popular culture (popular)
Culture) refers to customs, etiquette and lifestyle, including food, clothing, housing, transportation and interpersonal relationships; Deep culture (deep
Culture) mainly refers to the definition of values, beauty and ugliness, time orientation, life rhythm, problem-solving methods and personal roles related to gender, class, occupation and kinship.
Both high-level culture and popular culture are rooted in deep culture, and the concept of a deep culture is embodied in popular culture as a custom or lifestyle, and in high-level culture as an art form or literary theme.
writing
Culture is a very broad concept, and it is difficult to give it a strict and precise definition. Since the beginning of the 20th century, many philosophers, sociologists,
Anthropologists, historians and linguists have been trying to define the concept of culture from the perspective of their respective disciplines. However, so far, they haven't got an accepted and satisfactory definition. According to statistics, relevant
There are at least 200 different definitions of "culture". People's understanding of the word "culture" varies widely, and it is difficult to define the concept of "culture".
What is culture?
Refers to people in a broad sense.
The sum of material wealth and spiritual wealth created by human beings in social and historical practice. In a narrow sense, it refers to social ideology and its corresponding institutions and organizations. As an ideological culture, it is the politics and economy of a certain society.
The reflection of economy also affects the politics and economy of a certain society. With the emergence and development of a nation, culture has its own nationality. Every social form has its own culture, and every culture is produced with social material.
Development and development. The continuity of social material production development determines the continuity and historical inheritance of cultural development.
Generally refers to writing ability and general knowledge: learning culture | cultural level.
The concept of culture.
Definition: There are many definitions of culture. Many sociologists and anthropologists have defined it and made statistics: in the 80 years of1871-1951,there were as many as 164 definitions of culture. Taylor, the originator of anthropology, was the first scholar to define culture in modern times.
He believes that culture is a complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morality, laws, customs and any other talents and habits acquired as members of society. It is the total result of human efforts to adapt to the environment and improve lifestyle.
Is this reasonable? W.H. Kelly made the following criticisms:
There is something wrong with the definition of (1), and you can never list all the contents contained in the concept. Although "others" can summarize unlisted things, it is easy to be ignored if there is no other list.
Example: Language is not listed in the definition. Language is an important part of culture.
(2) The word whole is not appropriate, and there are contradictions between cultural elements. Emphasis on the whole only highlights harmony.
(3) The culture created by human beings is not necessarily aimed at improving life, but also has destructive aspects, such as nuclear weapons.
Is this criticism appropriate?
(1) If language is included, the definition has listed the important components of culture.
(2) The word whole does not exclude contradictions, and everything is the totality of contradictions.
(3) The culture created by human beings is destructive, but it is not the original intention, but the deviation between will and reality. Culture was originally produced to adapt to and improve life, but the result is the opposite. Therefore, Mr. Zhang believes that this concept can be added with language.
beautiful
China sociologist David Popenoe
From the perspective of abstract definition, culture is defined as follows: first, a group or society has the same value and meaning system, which includes the materialization of these values and meanings in material form. People can observe and check them.
The first two sentences of this definition sum up Taylor's first sentence. Culture is a guide to behavior for human beings, just as instinct is for animals.
Robin Fox further pointed out that culture and instinct have the same nature:
(1) are owned by members of a certain race.
(2) Most cultural behaviors, like instinct, are subconscious and can be learned without thinking. Stimulating them will cause a specific reaction.
Because, in the process of growing up, individuals often unconsciously store the existing lifestyles and habits of society into their brains and form cultural codes. Because of these ions, people can get all kinds of actions without going through the brain, which is the same as animals being dominated by physical ability.
(3) study the day after tomorrow.
Second, the composition and socialization of culture.
1, the composition of culture.
David summed up the three elements of culture:
Symbols, definitions and values are the standards used to explain reality, decide good or bad, right or wrong: including language and symbols.
(2) Norms: the explanation of how people should think, feel and act in a particular society, including customs, morality, religion and law.
(3) Material culture-realistic and artistic man-made articles, which embody the significance of intangible culture, including machines, tools, clothes, houses, etc.
2. The evolution of culture. (discuss first)
(1) culture has promoted the development of human society.
The development of culture enables human beings to change the environment according to the favorable conditions of the environment and change their behavior to adapt to the changed environmental conditions. Before the emergence of culture, human beings could only adapt to environmental changes through biological evolution, and culture accelerated the adaptation process.
Exodus: When one kind of prey is extinct, the hunter's tactics of hunting another kind of animal will reappear.
(2) Culture promotes the biological evolution of human body.
Example: The brain is more and more developed and the hands are more and more flexible.
(3) Culture itself has become a force in the human environment, and it has become as important as the environment in scope and influence, and it is also in the process of dynamic evolution.
In the history of nomadic-settlement-small town-city-country-global economy, culture runs through it: clothes, houses, tools, commodities and technology.
Section 2 Symbols and Language
First, symbols. The existence of culture depends on people's ability to create and use symbols.
1, what is a symbol? It means anything that can express something meaningfully.
Examples: words, numbers, axes and sickles.
2, the role of symbols
(1) transmit and save complex information.
(2) With the help of symbols, human beings can create culture and learn culture.
(3) Help us understand abstract concepts, such as God, justice and patriotism.
On the Basic Spirit of China Traditional Culture
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In essence, the basic spirit of China traditional culture is the national spirit of the Chinese nation. There are many opinions about the basic spirit of China traditional culture.
Some scholars believe that the ideological basis of the long-term development of China traditional culture can be called the basic spirit of China traditional culture. The basic spirit of culture is the subtle internal driving force in the process of cultural development, that is, guiding national culture not to
Break through the basic concept of progress. The basic spirit of China's traditional culture is the basic feature of the Chinese nation's spiritual form. Therefore, (1) is strong and promising; (2) Harmony and neutrality; (3) the use of respecting morality; (4) Harmony between man and nature
Tune. "These are the basic spirits of China's traditional culture." (Zhang Dainian: On the Basic Spirits of China Culture, China Cultural Studies Series 1, published by Fudan University Press. ) The quintessence of China.
God is basically condensed in two famous sayings in Zhouyi Zhuan, which are: "Heaven is strong, and gentlemen are constantly striving for self-improvement". "the terrain is vast, and a gentleman carries things with morality." "Self-improvement and virtue are the foundation of China's traditional culture.
This spirit. " Although the concept of "golden mean" has been widely circulated in the past, it can't actually play a role in promoting cultural development. Therefore, "the doctrine of the mean cannot be regarded as the basic spirit of China traditional culture". (Zhang Dainian:
Cultural Tradition and National Spirit, Academic Monthly 1986No. 12. The basic spirit of China's traditional culture is also reflected in the fine tradition of replacing religion with moral education. (Zhang Dainian: China culture and China philosophy.
Learning ","China Culture and China Philosophy "anthology, Oriental Publishing House).
Some scholars believe that "the fundamental spirit of China's traditional culture is harmony and freedom". (Xu Siyuan: Two Topics on China Culture, Collected Works on China Culture,No. 1, published by Fudan University Press. )
Some scholars believe that the patriarchal hierarchy ethics, which is based on self-sufficient natural economy, family-oriented and blood relationship as the link, runs through the social production activities, productivity and social production in ancient China.
The main clue, essence and core of five levels: relationship, social system, social psychology and social ideology. "This is the basic spirit of China's ancient traditional culture." (Yang Xianbang: Re-evaluation of China's traditional culture
Price, Zhang Liwen, etc. Traditional culture and modernization, published by Renmin University of China Press. )
Some scholars believe that China's national spirit can be roughly summarized into four interrelated aspects: (1) rational spirit, which shows a long tradition of atheism and fully affirms the unity of man and nature, individual and man.
The unity of society advocates that the satisfaction of personal feelings and desires is consistent with the rational requirements of society. Generally speaking, it denies the religious worship of supernatural God and savior and the existence of the other side of the world, and strongly advocates man and nature.
The harmonious unity of individuals and society and opposing the division and confrontation between them are the basis of the rational spirit of the Chinese nation. (2) the spirit of freedom. This is first manifested in the people's spirit of resisting the rule of the exploiting classes. At the same time, outside the opposition,
In the struggle for national oppression, some classes, groups and figures in the ruling class also actively participated in this struggle, which shows that in the ideological and cultural tradition of the ruling class in China, there are also positive aspects of "loving freedom".
The spirit of seeking truth from facts. Confucianism in the pre-Qin period advocated "knowing is knowing, not knowing is not knowing", knowing people and discussing the world, and opposing knowing from birth; Legalists oppose "foresight", pay attention to "experience", emphasize implementation and praise merit; Taoism advocates "knowledge"
Man, Self-knowledge and Analysis of Everything. These are all manifestations of the spirit of seeking truth. (4) adaptive spirit. (See Liu Gangji: On the Chinese National Spirit, Journal of Wuhan University, 1985, 1. Some scholars recognize it.
Therefore, the basic spirit of China traditional culture can be summarized as "respecting ancestors, respecting human relations, respecting morality and saluting" (see Sima Yunjie: Sociology of Culture, published by Shandong People's Publishing House). In addition, there are traditional cultures in China.
Have a developmental point of view, self-improvement and tireless learning spirit. (See Ding Shouhe: An Attempt of China Traditional Culture, Exploration No.4, 1987. )
Some scholars believe that the spirit of China's traditional culture is humanism, which is embodied in the following aspects: not isolating people from interpersonal relationships, nor opposing people with nature; Do not pursue a purely natural knowledge system; Current price
Value theory is anti-utilitarian; Pay tribute to being a man. The humanistic spirit of China's traditional culture has added luster to our nation and country, but it has also set obstacles; It spread the light of wisdom to the world and created a kind of communication between China and foreign countries.
Seed septum; This is a huge spiritual wealth and a huge cultural burden. (See Pang Pu: Humanistic Spirit of China Culture, Guangming Daily1986 65438+1October 6. )
(Li Zonggui: An Introduction to China Culture)
Culture refers to the spiritual wealth created by human beings, such as literature, art, education and science. In archaeology, it refers to the synthesis of relics and remains in the same historical period. The same tools, instruments and manufacturing techniques are the characteristics of the same culture. Sometimes culture also refers to civilization.
although
However, as early as the primitive society, the first division of labor that human beings have formed produced the agricultural nation and the animal husbandry nation, but the early culture was produced in the agricultural nation, because the animal husbandry nation had to live on weeds and have no place to live.
It is not easy to produce large-scale settlement, if there is no urgent need; However, agricultural nations are easy to form big tribes, and the construction of water conservancy requires a large number of people and Qi Xin to work together, so the earliest big countries and slavery were all produced by agricultural nations.
Family. Only with great powers and slavery can we gather a large number of idle classes. They invented writing, which promoted the formation of the second division of labor between mental work and manual work, thus producing a narrow sense of culture (broad sense of culture)
All human activities can be called culture.
Directory [hidden]
1 the concept of culture
2 Some views on culture
3 the characteristics of culture
4 the classification of culture
5 See also
[Editor] The concept of culture
writing
The word "flower" originated from the Latin verb "Colere", which means to cultivate the land (hence gardening in English), and later expanded to cultivate one's interest, spirit, intelligence and culture.
This concept was put forward by British anthropologist edward tylor in 187 1. He defined culture as "including knowledge, belief, art, law, morality, customs and abilities and habits acquired as members of society."
Complex whole. " Since then, the definition of culture has emerged one after another. Clyde Kluckhohn collected more than 100 cultural definitions in the late 1960s.
China's culture is actually a simplification of "humanistic education"
It is said that only people can have culture, which means that culture is the exclusive language to discuss human society; "Wen" is the foundation and tool, including language and/or writing; "Education" is the real focus of this word: as a noun.
"Educating people" is the * * identity norm of people's spiritual and material activities (at the same time, this norm is reflected in the objectification result of spiritual and material activities), while "educating people" as a verb is the generation, inheritance and transmission of the * * identity norm.
The process and method of spreading and gaining recognition.
[Editor] Some views on culture
Different disciplines have different understandings of culture.
Explain culture from a philosophical point of view, and think that culture is essentially a manifestation of philosophical thought. The epochal and regional nature of philosophy determines the different styles of culture. Generally speaking, the change of philosophy leads to the change of social system, accompanied by the suppression of old culture and the rise of new culture.
from
From the perspective of existentialism, culture is a description of the way of existence of a person or a group of people. People exist in nature as well as in history and times. Time is an important platform for a person or a group of people to exist in nature;
Society, country and nation (family) are another important platform for a person or a group of people to exist in history and times; Culture refers to the way, communication or behavior, consciousness or
Cognitive style. Culture is not only used to describe the external behavior of a group of people, but also includes the individual's spiritual consciousness and perception. A person's self-dialogue and views when he returns to his inner world.
The way of inspection.
The core of culture is its symbol system, such as characters, who have corresponding cognitive psychology.
[Editor] Characteristics of culture
Only through the comparative study of different cultures can we understand the characteristics of culture.
first
Pre-culture is * * *, which is a series of ideas, values and codes of conduct, and it is the same standard for individual behavior ability to be accepted by the collective. Culture and society are closely related. Without society, there would be no culture.
But there are also societies without culture. Within the same society, culture is also inconsistent. For example, in any society, male culture is different from female culture. Besides, they are different in age, occupation and class.
There are also sub-cultural differences between them.
Culture is learned, not inherited. The way of physiological satisfaction is determined by culture, and each culture determines how these needs are met.
From this point of view, non-human primates also have the ability of various cultural behaviors, but these cultural behaviors are only one-way cultural expressions, such as eating termites and warning calls. This is related to the huge and complicated texts of human society.
Compared with the symbol system, it is only a trivial point.
Reference: Assimilation
Symbol is the foundation of culture. Among them, language and characters are the most important, but they also include other expressions, such as images (such as totems).
Flag) body movements (such as shaking hands)
We can almost say that the whole cultural system is deeply rooted in human thinking through a huge symbol system, and people also understand and interpret it through this symbol system.
Therefore, how to interpret the essential meaning of various symbols in this culture has become one of the important ways for anthropology, linguistics and other social disciplines to interpret the human mind.
In addition, culture, as an interrelated whole, shows a trend of integration.
Excerpted from Baidu netizens, thank you.